Midterm Exam Business Valuation and Stock Valuation Essay

It is commonly more costly to shape an ownership than an organization on the grounds that, with an ownership, broad authoritative records are required. (b) Corporations face less guidelines than sole ownerships. (c) One inconvenience of working a business as a sole ownership is that the firm is liable to twofold tax assessment, at both the firm level and the proprietor level. (d) One bit of leeway of shaping a company is that value financial specialists are normally presented to less risk than in a standard association. In the event that a customary organization fails, each accomplice is presented to liabilities just up to the measure of their interest in the business. (2) (TCO G) A security expert got the accompanying data from Prestopino Products’ fiscal summaries: Retained income toward the finish of 2009 were $700,000, however held profit toward the finish of 2010 had declined to $320,000. †¢ The organization doesn't deliver profits. †¢ The company’s devaluation cost is its just non-money cost; it has no amortization charges. †¢ The organization has no non-money incomes. The company’s net income (NCF) for 2010 was $150,000. Based on this data, which of the accompanying explanations is CORRECT? (Focuses : 10) (a) Prestopino had negative total compensation in 2010. ( b ) Prestopino’s devaluation cost in 2010 was under $150,000. (c) Prestopino had positive net gain in 2010, however its pay was not as much as its 2009 pay. (d) Prestopino’s NCF in 2010 must be higher than its NCF in 2009. (e) Prestopino’s money on the accounting report toward the finish of 2010 must be lower than the money it had on the asset report toward the finish of 2009. Which of coming up next is destined to happen? (Focuses : 10) (a) The necessary pace of return for a normal stock will increment by a sum equivalent to the expansion in the market chance premium. (b) The necessary pace of return will decrease for stocks whose betas are under 1. 0. (c) The necessary pace of profit for the market, rM, won't change because of these changes. (d) The necessary pace of return for every individual stock in the market will increment by a sum equivalent to the expansion in the market chance premium. (e) The necessary pace of profit for a riskless bond will decrease.

THE COUNTRY OF GREECE Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

THE COUNTRY OF GREECE - Research Paper Example The Greeks were loaded up with the energy to battle for opportunity. They went through 9 years battling for their freedom from 1821 to 1829. Their battles wound up with the freedom of Greece when it was formally announced as an autonomous country. The little piece of Greece which was freed then turned into the home for Greek loyalists who picked up the standard of lonian islands in 1864 (Gardiner et al 1985, p 382). Later on Epirus, Thessaly, Crete, Macedona, Western Thrace and Dodecanese islands were added to make this little country one of the unmistakable conditions of the world. Greece is one of the individuals from European Union since 1981. It is a created nation and furthermore a significant piece of other autonomous bodies working for the government assistance of the part nations. Delivery and the travel industry are considered as the most gainful businesses of Greece. Greek shipper transport armada is likewise an explanation of notoriety for this nation. Greece follows the parliamentary majority rules system as its political arrangement of Greece. This political framework is characterized in the constitution of Greece. The ongoing changes in the constitution of Greece were found in May 2008. The forces lie with the Prime Minister and the bureau and the legislature acknowledges the larger part bring in taking parliamentary choices. The legislative arrangement of Greece is partitioned into 3 branches. The administrators incorporate the president and the executive who are assigned as the leader of the state and the leader of the legislature individually. The Legislative branch comprises of a 300 seat unicameral â€Å"vouli† and the legal branch includes the Supreme Court (Clogg, 1987 pp 223-230). The Greek constitution disseminates the political powers in 5 significant parts. These incorporate the force held by the President of Greece, the administrative force, the force held by officials, the legal executive force and the force distributed to the nearby legislature of Greece. The appointive framework embraced by Greece calls for additional

How Dopamine Controls the Brains Reward and Pleasure Centers

How Dopamine Controls the Brains Reward and Pleasure Centers Dopamine is one of the feel-good hormones. As defined by Encyclopedia Britannica, it’s“a nitrogen-containing  organic compound  formed as an intermediate  compound  from dihydroxyphenylalanine (dopa) during the metabolism of the  amino acid  tyrosine”.The major function of dopamine in our brain is that of a neurotransmitter in basal ganglia, corpus striatum and the substantia nigra.High levels of dopamine in your brain will make you feel pleased, happy, most importantly, rewarded for something you’ve accomplished.That’s why dopamine is often mentioned together with serotonin and oxytocin. All these chemicals have a positive effect on our mood and behavior.In this article, we’re going to discuss how dopamine controls the brain’s reward and pleasure centers.THE POSITION OF REWARD AND PLEASURE CENTERSPeople function on the basis of rewards, pleasures, inhibitions, fears, and interplays between these states of mind. The levels of chemicals inside our brain related to each o f these feelings vary due to different daily situations that we experience.What’s for sure is that a high level of dopamine is closely connected with rewards. To be more precise, every time when you’re expecting a reward for something you’ve done, the dopamine levels rise.This increase comes as a result of certain processes in the pleasure and reward centers in your brain.In a nutshell, the brain reacts in a certain way when it’s exposed to rewarding stimuli. These reactions lead to the increase of dopamine levels, which in turn causes feelings of satisfaction and happiness.The elements of the reward and pleasure systemWhat also plays an important role in the production of dopamine in the brain are two main dopamine pathways: the mesolimbic dopamine pathway and the mesocortical pathway. The former is the pivotal point in the entire brain reward system.At this point, it’s also important to highlight the functions of the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area (VTA) . The VTA is one of the key dopamine-producing parts of the brain. The nucleus accumbens, on the other hand, is one of the major centers for motivation and reward in our brain.The mesolimbic dopamine pathway goes from the VTA to the nucleus accumbens. Since it connects a dopamine-producing area with one of the reward centers, it’s one of the most important pathways for distribution of dopamine throughout the brain.On the other hand, the mesocorticaldopamine pathway leads from the VTA to the cerebral cortex. This area is also part of the reward system.In the study The Orbitofrontal Cortex and Reward, Edmund T. Rolls, PH. D, explains that the feelings of reward for pleasant tastes and smells are placed in this part of the cortex.To cut a long story short, two dopamine pathways, one dopamine-generating center and several areas that cause the feelings of reward and satisfaction make the reward and pleasure system in our brain.The reward stimuli and experimentsAlthough scientists knew for ages that people reacted to many stimuli in a conditioned way, it was only in the 1950s that they were able to prove that point.So, in 1954, psychologists James Milner and Peter Milner of McGill University conducted an experiment on rats in which they discovered the reward centers in the brain.They placed electrodes inside rats’ brains, after which they used a lever to create electrical stimuli inside the animals’ brains. Each time they would press the lever, the same area of the brain got stimulated. This was interpreted as the feeling of reward for their effort and success.The more time the lever was being pressed, the higher level of stimulation the rats would receive. In the notes from this experiment, it was written down that one rat got so hooked up on the stimuli and the feeling of reward for pressing the lever that this particular animal pressed it more than 7500 times.Since the rats in this experiment kept repeating the same action over and over again to stimulate t he same area in the brain, Milner and Old concluded that the animals were enjoying the entire process.Later on, other scientists took the plunge to additionally clarify the findings of these two scientists so there were some more detailed discoveries regarding the reward areas in the brain.To be more precise, scientists found that the area around the medial forebrain bundle is one of the most sensitive parts of the brain related to rewards and pleasure.A huge set of nerve fibers between the hypothalamus and the VTA, the medial forebrain bundle turned out to be so sensitive for the rats that they would rather keep pressing the lever than eat food. Due to its high sensitivity, this bundle generated a more pleasant feeling than a meal.In the video below you can see a concise presentation on the rewards system in our brain. THE MESOLIMBIC PATHWAYWe’ve already mentioned that the mesolimbic pathway connects the VTA and the nucleus accumbens. The former is located in the midbrain and the latter is placed in the ventral striatum in the forebrain.One of the dopaminergic pathways in the brain, this neurotransmitter highway produces and emits dopamine. The mesolimbic pathway consists of projection dopamine neurons, made of axons, which cover this entire pathway. The production of dopamine starts in the dopamine neurons, where dopamine-synthesizing enzymes are produced.These chemicals travel via axons to synapses, which is where the lion’s share of dopamine is synthesized.The mesolimbic pathway and motivationAs the dopamine is produced, it’s released into the nucleus accumbens. The level of dopamine in this pleasure and reward center regulates the level of motivation and desire for rewards in our brain.As such, it also plays a certain role in our subjective feeling of pleasure. Hence, when the level of dopamine is high in the nucleus accumbens, people feel satisfied, motivated and fulfilled.When they get the reward for something they’ve done, the dopamine level re mains high, extending the feeling of satisfaction and exaltation.The dysfunctionality of the mesolimbic pathwayApart from learning and motivational salience, the role of the mesolimbic pathway is to control fear and some other processes in the brain.All these feelings are in some way connected with the feelings of reward and pleasure. We all get accustomed to a certain level of dopamine in this part of the brain during our lifetime.Because of that, the dysfunctionality of the mesolimbic pathway and the subsequent decrease in the dopamine levels can force us to seek the feeling of reward from other sources.Simply put, when there’s not enough dopamine in the mesolimbic pathway, the brain tries to make up for the lack of this neurotransmitter and to stimulate the neurons responsible for pleasure and rewards.Since we need to be motivated to get things done and lead normal lives, when the centers for motivation and reward aren’t properly stimulated, it can lead to demotivation, depre ssion, and schizophrenia.You can read more about different levels of motivation in the article “Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs: Definition, Explained, Example” on our website.Further, when the production of dopamine and the functionality of the mesolimbic pathway are deregulated, people can develop addictions or other disorders.This is why people become addicted to gambling, drugs, sex, or any other activity that generates high dopamine levels and that intensive feeling of satisfaction and pleasure.Dopamine sends rewarding signalsHowever, it’s wrong to think that dopamine itself is addictive or that it can make you feel good on itself. Being a neurotransmitter, it rather signals that something pleasant is about to happen.In the article “No, Dopamine Is Not Addictive”, published on the Psychology Today website, clinical psychologist David Ley, Ph. D explains that dopamine is the announcer of the forthcoming pleasure. Also, it helps us learn and memorize things that cause ple asure and the release of rewarding chemicals in our brain.For instance, when you’re about to have your favorite meal, the dopamine levels increase because your brain remembers how pleasant it is to eat that particular food.In line with that, the mesolimbic pathway is here to inform all the areas situated next to it, as well as the nucleus accumbens that something good is going to happen to you soon.THE MESOCORTICAL PATHWAYThe second most important dopaminergic pathway in our brain, the mesocortical pathway leads from the ventral tegmental area in the midbrain to the prefrontal cortex.It delivers dopamine to the dorsolateral frontal cortex. This area of the brain plays a major role in emotional response, planning, abstract reasoning, motivation and cognitive flexibility and control, and other executive functions.Because of that, it’s extremely important that it’s connected with one of the four dopaminergic pathways.Being connected with the midbrain centers related to stimuli an d rewards, the prefrontal cortex is regularly fed with the chemical information related to these feelings.The malfunctioned mesocortical pathwayIf we suffer from schizophrenia, psychoses, or anxiety, there might be flaws or abnormalities in the functionality of the dopamine stream from the mesocortical pathway to the dorsolateral frontal cortex.A lower level of dopamine in that pathway can result in feelings of apathy or lethargy, as well as the lack of willpower.This is so due to the hypoactive stimuli of the prefrontal cortex. Because of that, D1 receptors don’t receive enough stimulation, which is also why people with low dopamine levels can suffer from the aforementioned symptoms and other problems in cognitive processes.In other words, when the prefrontal cortex doesn’t receive enough dopamine, many other parts of the brain subordinate to it won’t be notified on the potential rewarding experience we’re about to have. When they don’t receive that information, they canâ €™t develop the feelings of exhilaration and excitement prior to the forthcoming reward.As a result, such people can look and feel isolated and depressed, simply because they have low dopamine levels and their brain cannot reach that pre-rewarding state.THE ROLE OF NUCLEUS ACCUMBENS  Situated in the basal forebrain and part of the basal ganglia, the nucleus accumbens (NAc) is the key feature of the ventral striatum. The main parts of the nucleus accumbens are the core and the shell. Both of them are important in the full functionality of this part of the brain.The most important role of this brain element is its involvement in the reward process. To be more precise, this part is the end point of the reward circuit that starts in the VTA.When we’re about to do something that our brain recognizes as pleasant, we’re going to experience a feeling of reward and pleasure.In such a situation, the VTA generates dopamine hormones and other substances so as to announce that there’s goin g to be a reward. Those hormones are then sent to the nucleus accumbens. The end result of this process is that the level of dopamine in the NAc increases.This part is also a vital output unit for the nervous system. In a nutshell, neurons from the nucleus accumbens travel to the basal ganglia and the ventral pallidum (VP). The latter emits neurons that go to the dorsal thalamus, where this pathway diverges to the striatum and the prefrontal cortex.Scientists used to believe that the NAc had an important role in the reward-mediating process. Because of that, it was often connected with various addictions and their development.Nevertheless, in-depth analyses about the connection between the nucleus and rewards led to the conclusion that dopamine doesn’t only increase prior to a reward, but it also reacts to negative stimuli.For instance, if your brain memorized an unpleasant taste, when it gets stimulated by that very taste again, it dopamine levels will rise, as a warning. Without the nucleus accumbens, it wouldn’t be possible.You can find out more about the entire reward pathway and its components in the video below. THE ROLE OF VENTRAL TEGMENTAL AREA  One of the most important parts of the entire reward system, the ventral tegmental area (VTA) is situated in the midbrain, close to the substantia nigra.The source of many different sorts of neurons, the VTA is most important for its role in the production of dopaminergic neurons. These transmitters are sent from the VTA to different parts of the brain.Due to the character of the chemicals it produces and sends around the brain, the VTA has an important function in establishing a particular type of behavior.The reason why this part is usually mentioned with the substantia nigra is the fact that these two elements are two key dopaminergic parts of the brain.And while the substantia nigra is closely related to the putamen and the caudate â€" the two parts of the striatum â€" the VTA is the source of the mesoc ortical and mesolimbic pathways. The former ends in the cortical parts, while the latter finished in limbic regions of the brain.The aforementioned increase of dopamine in the NAc when the brain is stimulated either by affirmative or aversive stimuli has its roots in the VTA.Namely, the release of dopamine and its projection through the mesolimbic pathway are both triggered by the neurons placed in the VTA.All this leads to the conclusion that the VTA is an integral part of the entire rewarding system. Because of that, some experts consider this part of the brain an important element in the addiction-developing process.Apart from addiction, the VTA is often cited as an important factor in understanding and treading other cognitive disorders, among which schizophrenia is the most prominent one.This is mainly so due to the fact that this disorder is connected with high dopamine levels.Since dopamine production is activated by dopaminergic neurons in the VTA, there’s a correlation be tween schizophrenia and this part.On the other hand, low dopamine levels can lead to ADHD (attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder).Since the VTA has a huge role in dopaminergic projections, which affect numerous cognitive processes in our brain, the VTA is included in both regular and abnormal mental processes.To cut a long story short, when the VTA doesn’t function properly, the entire brain will have difficulties in maintaining all the functions necessary for normal life.THE LACK OF DOPAMINE â€" ISSUES  We’ve already discussed the most frequent disorders connected with either the lack or excess of dopamine, such as apathy or schizophrenia.However, these aren’t the only issues that can come as a result of unbalanced dopamine levels. Since most problems occur when dopamine is low, here are some symptoms that your dopamine levels might not be on a satisfied level.Your dopamine levels might be low if you feel frequent tremors or cramps in your extremities, as well as stiff mus cles. What’s more, these symptoms are often indicators of Parkinson’s disease.That’s why they require special attention and testing so that you start with the right therapy as soon as possible.Further, people suffering from dopamine deficiency could suffer from constipation, the loss of appetite or fatigue.All these symptoms can occur as the result of low dopamine. Simply put, when the pleasure centers in your brain don’t feel that the reward is coming, in form of a pleasant taste or smell, the centers that control your appetite and the digestive system won’t be inspired to eat at all.Similarly, if you feel chronic exhaustion and low libido, your dopamine levels might not be as high as necessary for normal everyday life.This connection is similar to the relationship between dopamine and food â€" if the pleasure centers aren’t notified that there’s going to be a reward for something you’d initially like to do, there won’t be any chemical support for the action in qu estion.Closely related to these symptoms is the lack of self-esteem and motivation to do things in your life. It’s important to know that motivation isn’t only a psychological element, but it’s deeply rooted in the chemical processes in our brain.Dopamine is one of the major substances of the entire motivation system, which is why low dopamine levels will lead to weak motivation. If there is no chemical announcement that the reward is coming, you won’t be motivated to do what you’re planning.Increase dopamine levels naturallyIf you’re feeling any of the aforementioned symptoms, you should visit a doctor and check your dopamine.Depending on their policy, they’ll either prescribe some dopamine supplements or recommend how to increase dopamine levels naturally.For starters, you should change your diet. Instead of saturated fats and sugars, try to take in higher amounts of protein and fiber. They contain amino acids that will help your body produce more dopamine.Tyrosine i s one of the most important amino acids for the production of this neurotransmitter. Beef, turkey, soy, eggs, dairy products, and legumes are all rich in this amino acid, so include these ingredients to your menu.Moreover, include probiotics in your daily routine. The brain and the stomach are closely related, which is the gut plays a major role in many chemical processes that affect the brain.In the study “The Gut Microbiome and the Brain” conducted by Leo Galland, MD, the founder of Functional medicine, claims that some bacteria in the gut enhance increasing dopamine levels in the brain.It’s also important to work out regularly in order to increase dopamine. Moving is one of the primary abilities that people have, which is why at least 20 minutes of physical exercise daily improves numerous physical and physiological functions.Since continuous workout increases endorphin levels, it also improves your mood. When you’re in a good mood, your motivation is already higher. In t urn, dopamine rises, as well, resulting in the better balance of this neurotransmitter.When you’re physically active, you’ll get more sleep, which is also a prerequisite for increasing dopamine levels.Last, but not the least, you can listen to some inspiring music that you like or binaural beats.The latter can improve the overall state of your mind, including the levels of transmitters.You can listen to some binaural beats in the video below. CONCLUSIONDopamine is one of the most important chemical elements of our brain. If it’s too low, we don’t feel enough motivation for many things that make the quality of life. In the case of high dopamine levels, we can develop some disorders that will cause too intensive behaviors.What you can do to enhance the functionality of the nucleus accumbens and the ventral tegmental area and the overall levels of dopamine is eat well, get regular sleep, and work out regularly.If your dopamine balance is severely damaged, you should go and see the doctor who will help you regain the balance.Only normal dopamine levels will notify the brain to send reward signals to the pleasure centers and keep us functional and well-prepared for everyday life.

Branches of Government

Branches of Government The Framers carefully incorporated a system of checks and balances within the government by establishing three co-equal branches of government: the Legislative, Executive, and Judicial. The power is separated between the three branches of government to avoid one particular branch from becoming dominant over the other branches. The respective powers and functions of each branch of government are addressed in the Articles of the United States Constitution. Article I of the Constitution establishes the Legislative both the House and the Senate and the necessary qualifications of representatives (U.S. Const. art. I,  §Ã‚ § 1-2). Article I sets forth the procedure for how bills become law (U.S. Const. art I,  § 7, cl. 3). Article I also lays out the specific enumerated powers of Congress (U.S. Const. art I,  § 8). Article II of the Constitution establishes Executive branch of government. Article II specifically provides that the Executive power is vested in a President (U.S. Const. art II,  § 1, cl. 1). Article II also provides for the method for selecting the President, which is through the Electoral College (U.S. Const. art II,  § 1, cl. 2). Most importantly, Article II provides for the specific powers of the President (U.S. Const. art II,  § 2). Article III of the Constitution establishes the Judicial branch of the government. Article III vests the judicial power of the United states in one Supreme Court and gives Congress the power to create inferior courts as needed (U.S. Const. art. III,  § 1). Article III provides for the jurisdiction of the federal courts and the limitations on the types of cases that the federal courts are empowered to hear (U.S. Const. art. III,  § 2). In a federalist system, both the federal and state governments have respective powers. While some areas are reserved exclusively for the federal government to regulate, many issues are left up to the states. In the modern business market, millions of business transactions take place across state lines. Congress has the express authority to â€Å"regulate Commerce†¦among the several states† (U.S. Const. art I,  § 8, cl. 3). Known as the Commerce Clause, the power of Congress to regulate interstate commerce has been interpreted extremely broadly. The practical significance of Congress’ Commerce power is that most business transactions will be subject to both state and federal regulations. In today’s world, nearly every commercial activity has some impact on interstate commerce, which would bring the activity within the reach of Congressional regulation. Even activities that are purely local in nature have been construed to have an economic effect on interstate commerce, and therefore can be regulated by Congress pursuant to the Commerce Clause. Arguably, this unfettered authority under the Commerce Clause is an unwelcome and unwarranted intrusion into state sovereignty. By taking the Commerce Clause powers to the extreme, virtually every activity could theoretically be subject to Congressional regulation. Such a result runs afoul of the purpose of federalism and the right of the states to address local concerns as the states see fit. While there are certain issues that assume a national character that require federal intervention or regulation, many problems are local in nature and are best left up to state-by-state regulation. As an increasing number of business deals are taking place without regard to state borders and boundaries, a much narrow interpretation of the Commerce Clause should follow suit to avoid Congress overshadowin g virtually every state law and regulation.

The Christian Understanding Of The Human Person Essay

The Christian understanding of the human person is the relationship man has with creation, man has with man and the dignity of the human person, as well as the relationship man has with God. These relationships interrelate and form who the human is and how they are in their life with God. The Laudato Si letter highlights that these are the bases for the human person. â€Å"Human life is grounded in three fundamental and closely intertwined relationships: with God, with our neighbour and with the earth itself.† Creation is humans, animals, and nature. It is the past, the future and now. All that has been made by God through love. The earth and all that inhabits it, the animals plants and between. Creation is the living plan of God. To Christians, this is the plan outline of life, it is the way God wants us to live, the way we should behave and treat others. Man needs to have a relationship with others. Gaudium Et Spes talks about the relationships man has with others, the relationship with women and with God. Genesis 2:22- 24 references the importance of these relationships; they are made of each other. They are one â€Å"The man said, â€Å"This is now bone of my bones and flesh of my flesh; she shall be called ‘woman,’ for she was taken out of man.† Dignity is a major part of the human person to Christians. This dignity is part of the connection man has to God. Dignity of the human person is how they relate to others, how they relate to God and how they relate to themselves. LaudatoShow MoreRelatedThe Five Principle Beliefs Of Christianity1642 Words   |  7 PagesOUTLINE THE FIVE PRINCIPLE BELIEFS OF CHRISTIANITY The principle beliefs associated with Christianity exuberate the understanding of life for its adherents, whilst perpetrating an influence on society. This therefore allows for the comprehension of sacred texts and its cohesive meaning on an entity. 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The Lost Symbol Chapter 1-3 Free Essays

string(99) " The driver showed him the temperature controls, the bottled water, and the basket of hot muffins\." CHAPTER 1 The Otis elevator climbing the south pillar of the Eiffel Tower was overflowing with tourists. Inside the cramped lift, an austere businessman in a pressed suit gazed down at the boy beside him. â€Å"You look pale, son. We will write a custom essay sample on The Lost Symbol Chapter 1-3 or any similar topic only for you Order Now You should have stayed on the ground.† â€Å"I’m okay . . .† the boy answered, struggling to control his anxiety. â€Å"I’ll get out on the next level.† I can’t breathe. The man leaned closer. â€Å"I thought by now you would have gotten over this.† He brushed the child’s cheek affectionately. The boy felt ashamed to disappoint his father, but he could barely hear through the ringing in his ears. I can’t breathe. I’ve got to get out of this box! The elevator operator was saying something reassuring about the lift’s articulated pistons and puddled-iron construction. Far beneath them, the streets of Paris stretched out in all directions. Almost there, the boy told himself, craning his neck and looking up at the unloading platform. Just hold on. As the lift angled steeply toward the upper viewing deck, the shaft began to narrow, its massive struts contracting into a tight, vertical tunnel. â€Å"Dad, I don’t think–â€Å" Suddenly a staccato crack echoed overhead. The carriage jerked, swaying awkwardly to one side. Frayed cables began whipping around the carriage, thrashing like snakes. The boy reached out for his father. â€Å"Dad!† Their eyes locked for one terrifying second. Then the bottom dropped out. Robert Langdon jolted upright in his soft leather seat, startling out of the semiconscious daydream. He was sitting all alone in the enormous cabin of a Falcon 2000EX corporate jet as it bounced its way through turbulence. In the background, the dual Pratt Whitney engines hummed evenly. â€Å"Mr. Langdon?† The intercom crackled overhead. â€Å"We’re on final approach.† Langdon sat up straight and slid his lecture notes back into his leather daybag. He’d been halfway through reviewing Masonic symbology when his mind had drifted. The daydream about his late father, Langdon suspected, had been stirred by this morning’s unexpected invitation from Langdon’s longtime mentor, Peter Solomon. The other man I never want to disappoint. The fifty-eight-year-old philanthropist, historian, and scientist had taken Langdon under his wing nearly thirty years ago, in many ways filling the void left by Langdon’s father’s death. Despite the man’s influential family dynasty and massive wealth, Langdon had found humility and warmth in Solomon’s soft gray eyes. Outside the window the sun had set, but Langdon could still make out the slender silhouette of the world’s largest obelisk, rising on the horizon like the spire of an ancient gnomon. The 555- foot marble-faced obelisk marked this nation’s heart. All around the spire, the meticulous geometry of streets and monuments radiated outward. Even from the air, Washington, D.C., exuded an almost mystical power. Langdon loved this city, and as the jet touched down, he felt a rising excitement about what lay ahead. The jet taxied to a private terminal somewhere in the vast expanse of Dulles International Airport and came to a stop. Langdon gathered his things, thanked the pilots, and stepped out of the jet’s luxurious interior onto the foldout staircase. The cold January air felt liberating. Breathe, Robert, he thought, appreciating the wide-open spaces. A blanket of white fog crept across the runway, and Langdon had the sensation he was stepping into a marsh as he descended onto the misty tarmac. â€Å"Hello! Hello!† a singsong British voice shouted from across the tarmac. â€Å"Professor Langdon?† Langdon looked up to see a middle-aged woman with a badge and clipboard hurrying toward him, waving happily as he approached. Curly blond hair protruded from under a stylish knit wool hat. â€Å"Welcome to Washington, sir!† Langdon smiled. â€Å"Thank you.† â€Å"My name is Pam, from passenger services.† The woman spoke with an exuberance that was almost unsettling. â€Å"If you’ll come with me, sir, your car is waiting.† Langdon followed her across the runway toward the Signature terminal, which was surrounded by glistening private jets. A taxi stand for the rich and famous. â€Å"I hate to embarrass you, Professor,† the woman said, sounding sheepish, â€Å"but you are the Robert Langdon who writes books about symbols and religion, aren’t you?† Langdon hesitated and then nodded. â€Å"I thought so!† she said, beaming. â€Å"My book group read your book about the sacred feminine and the church! What a delicious scandal that one caused! You do enjoy putting the fox in the henhouse!† Langdon smiled. â€Å"Scandal wasn’t really my intention.† The woman seemed to sense Langdon was not in the mood to discuss his work. â€Å"I’m sorry. Listen to me rattling on. I know you probably get tired of being recognized . . . but it’s your own fault.† She playfully motioned to his clothing. â€Å"Your uniform gave you away.† My uniform? Langdon glanced down at his attire. He was wearing his usual charcoal turtleneck, Harris Tweed jacket, khakis, and collegiate cordovan loafers . . . his standard attire for the classroom, lecture circuit, author photos, and social events. The woman laughed. â€Å"Those turtlenecks you wear are so dated. You’d look much sharper in a tie!† No chance, Langdon thought. Little nooses. Neckties had been required six days a week when Langdon attended Phillips Exeter Academy, and despite the headmaster’s romantic claims that the origin of the cravat went back to the silk fascalia worn by Roman orators to warm their vocal cords, Langdon knew that, etymologically, cravat actually derived from a ruthless band of â€Å"Croat† mercenaries who donned knotted neckerchiefs before they stormed into battle. To this day, this ancient battle garb was donned by modern office warriors hoping to intimidate their enemies in daily boardroom battles. â€Å"Thanks for the advice,† Langdon said with a chuckle. â€Å"I’ll consider a tie in the future.† Mercifully, a professional-looking man in a dark suit got out of a sleek Lincoln Town Car parked near the terminal and held up his finger. â€Å"Mr. Langdon? I’m Charles with Beltway Limousine.† He opened the passenger door. â€Å"Good evening, sir. Welcome to Washington.† Langdon tipped Pam for her hospitality and then climbed into the plush interior of the Town Car. The driver showed him the temperature controls, the bottled water, and the basket of hot muffins. You read "The Lost Symbol Chapter 1-3" in category "Essay examples" Seconds later, Langdon was speeding away on a private access road. So this is how the other half lives. As the driver gunned the car up Windsock Drive, he consulted his passenger manifest and placed a quick call. â€Å"This is Beltway Limousine,† the driver said with professional efficiency. â€Å"I was asked to confirm once my passenger had landed.† He paused. â€Å"Yes, sir. Your guest, Mr. Langdon, has arrived, and I will deliver him to the Capitol Building by seven P.M. You’re welcome, sir.† He hung up. Langdon had to smile. No stone left unturned. Peter Solomon’s attention to detail was one of his most potent assets, allowing him to manage his substantial power with apparent ease. A few billion dollars in the bank doesn’t hurt either. Langdon settled into the plush leather seat and closed his eyes as the noise of the airport faded behind him. The U.S. Capitol was a half hour away, and he appreciated the time alone to gather his thoughts. Everything had happened so quickly today that Langdon only now had begun to think in earnest about the incredible evening that lay ahead. Arriving under a veil of secrecy, Langdon thought, amused by the prospect. Ten miles from the Capitol Building, a lone figure was eagerly preparing for Robert Langdon’s arrival. CHAPTER 2 The one who called himself Mal’akh pressed the tip of the needle against his shaved head, sighing with pleasure as the sharp tool plunged in and out of his flesh. The soft hum of the electric device was addictive . . . as was the bite of the needle sliding deep into his dermis and depositing its dye. I am a masterpiece. The goal of tattooing was never beauty. The goal was change. From the scarified Nubian priests of 2000 B.C., to the tattooed acolytes of the Cybele cult of ancient Rome, to the moko scars of the modern Maori, humans have tattooed themselves as a way of offering up their bodies in partial sacrifice, enduring the physical pain of embellishment and emerging changed beings. Despite the ominous admonitions of Leviticus 19:28, which forbade the marking of one’s flesh, tattoos had become a rite of passage shared by millions of people in the modern age–everyone from clean-cut teenagers to hard-core drug users to suburban housewives. The act of tattooing one’s skin was a transformative declaration of power, an announcement to the world: I am in control of my own flesh. The intoxicating feeling of control derived from physical transformation had addicted millions to flesh-altering practices . . . cosmetic surgery, body piercing, bodybuilding, and steroids . . . even bulimia and transgendering. The human spirit craves mastery over its carnal shell. A single bell chimed on Mal’akh’s grandfather clock, and he looked up. Six thirty P.M. Leaving his tools, he wrapped the Kiryu silk robe around his naked, six-foot-three body and strode down the hall. The air inside this sprawling mansion was heavy with the pungent fragrance of his skin dyes and smoke from the beeswax candles he used to sterilize his needles. The towering young man moved down the corridor past priceless Italian antiques–a Piranesi etching, a Savonarola chair, a silver Bugarini oil lamp. He glanced through a floor-to-ceiling window as he passed, admiring the classical skyline in the distance. The luminous dome of the U.S. Capitol glowed with solemn power against the dark winter sky. This is where it is hidden, he thought. It is buried out there somewhere. Few men knew it existed . . . and even fewer knew its awesome power or the ingenious way in which it had been hidden. To this day, it remained this country’s greatest untold secret. Those few who did know the truth kept it hidden behind a veil of symbols, legends, and allegory. Now they have opened their doors to me, Mal’akh thought. Three weeks ago, in a dark ritual witnessed by America’s most influential men, Mal’akh had ascended to the thirty-third degree, the highest echelon of the world’s oldest surviving brotherhood. Despite Mal’akh’s new rank, the brethren had told him nothing. Nor will they, he knew. That was not how it worked. There were circles within circles . . . brotherhoods within brotherhoods. Even if Mal’akh waited years, he might never earn their ultimate trust. Fortunately, he did not need their trust to obtain their deepest secret. My initiation served its purpose. Now, energized by what lay ahead, he strode toward his bedroom. Throughout his entire home, audio speakers broadcast the eerie strains of a rare recording of a castrato singing the â€Å"Lux Aeterna† from the Verdi Requiem–a reminder of a previous life. Mal’akh touched a remote control to bring on the thundering â€Å"Dies Irae.† Then, against a backdrop of crashing timpani and parallel fifths, he bounded up the marble staircase, his robe billowing as he ascended on sinewy legs. As he ran, his empty stomach growled in protest. For two days now, Mal’akh had fasted, consuming only water, preparing his body in accordance with the ancient ways. Your hunger will be satisfied by dawn, he reminded himself. Along with your pain. Mal’akh entered his bedroom sanctuary with reverence, locking the door behind him. As he moved toward his dressing area, he paused, feeling himself drawn to the enormous gilded mirror. Unable to resist, he turned and faced his own reflection. Slowly, as if unwrapping a priceless gift, Mal’akh opened his robe to unveil his naked form. The vision awed him. I am a masterpiece. His massive body was shaved and smooth. He lowered his gaze first to his feet, which were tattooed with the scales and talons of a hawk. Above that, his muscular legs were tattooed as carved pillars–his left leg spiraled and his right vertically striated. Boaz and Jachin. His groin and abdomen formed a decorated archway, above which his powerful chest was emblazoned with the double-headed phoenix . . . each head in profile with its visible eye formed by one of Mal’akh’s nipples. His shoulders, neck, face, and shaved head were completely covered with an intricate tapestry of ancient symbols and sigils. I am an artifact . . . an evolving icon. One mortal man had seen Mal’akh naked, eighteen hours earlier. The man had shouted in fear. â€Å"Good God, you’re a demon!† â€Å"If you perceive me as such,† Mal’akh had replied, understanding as had the ancients that angels and demons were identical–interchangeable archetypes–all a matter of polarity: the guardian angel who conquered your enemy in battle was perceived by your enemy as a demon destroyer. Mal’akh tipped his face down now and got an oblique view of the top of his head. There, within the crownlike halo, shone a small circle of pale, untattooed flesh. This carefully guarded canvas was Mal’akh’s only remaining piece of virgin skin. The sacred space had waited patiently . . . and tonight, it would be filled. Although Mal’akh did not yet possess what he required to complete his masterpiece, he knew the moment was fast approaching. Exhilarated by his reflection, he could already feel his power growing. He closed his robe and walked to the window, again gazing out at the mystical city before him. It is buried out there somewhere. Refocusing on the task at hand, Mal’akh went to his dressing table and carefully applied a base of concealer makeup to his face, scalp, and neck until his tattoos had disappeared. Then he donned the special set of clothing and other items he had meticulously prepared for this evening. When he finished, he checked himself in the mirror. Satisfied, he ran a soft palm across his smooth scalp and smiled. It is out there, he thought. And tonight, one man will help me find it. As Mal’akh exited his home, he prepared himself for the event that would soon shake the U.S. Capitol Building. He had gone to enormous lengths to arrange all the pieces for tonight. And now, at last, his final pawn had entered the game. CHAPTER 3 Robert Langdon was busy reviewing his note cards when the hum of the Town Car’s tires changed pitch on the road beneath him. Langdon glanced up, surprised to see where they were. Memorial Bridge already? He put down his notes and gazed out at the calm waters of the Potomac passing beneath him. A heavy mist hovered on the surface. Aptly named, Foggy Bottom had always seemed a peculiar site on which to build the nation’s capital. Of all the places in the New World, the forefathers had chosen a soggy riverside marsh on which to lay the cornerstone of their utopian society. Langdon gazed left, across the Tidal Basin, toward the gracefully rounded silhouette of the Jefferson Memorial–America’s Pantheon, as many called it. Directly in front of the car, the Lincoln Memorial rose with rigid austerity, its orthogonal lines reminiscent of Athens’s ancient Parthenon. But it was farther away that Langdon saw the city’s centerpiece–the same spire he had seen from the air. Its architectural inspiration was far, far older than the Romans or the Greeks. America’s Egyptian obelisk. The monolithic spire of the Washington Monument loomed dead ahead, illuminated against the sky like the majestic mast of a ship. From Langdon’s oblique angle, the obelisk appeared ungrounded tonight . . . swaying against the dreary sky as if on an unsteady sea. Langdon felt similarly ungrounded. His visit to Washington had been utterly unexpected. I woke up this morning anticipating a quiet Sunday at home . . . and now I’m a few minutes away from the U.S. Capitol. This morning at four forty-five, Langdon had plunged into dead-calm water, beginning his day as he always did, swimming fifty laps in the deserted Harvard Pool. His physique was not quite what it had been in his college days as a water-polo all-American, but he was still lean and toned, respectable for a man in his forties. The only difference now was the amount of effort it took Langdon to keep it that way. When Langdon arrived home around six, he began his morning ritual of hand-grinding Sumatra coffee beans and savoring the exotic scent that filled his kitchen. This morning, however, he was surprised to see the blinking red light on his voice-mail display. Who calls at six A.M. on a Sunday? He pressed the button and listened to the message. â€Å"Good morning, Professor Langdon, I’m terribly sorry for this early-morning call.† The polite voice was noticeably hesitant, with a hint of a southern accent. â€Å"My name is Anthony Jelbart, and I’m Peter Solomon’s executive assistant. Mr. Solomon told me you’re an early riser . . . he has been trying to reach you this morning on short notice. As soon as you receive this message, would you be so kind as to call Peter directly? You probably have his new private line, but if not, it’s 202-329-5746.† Langdon felt a sudden concern for his old friend. Peter Solomon was impeccably well-bred and courteous, and certainly not the kind of man to call at daybreak on a Sunday unless something was very wrong. Langdon left his coffee half made and hurried toward his study to return the call. I hope he’s okay. Peter Solomon had been a friend, mentor, and, although only twelve years Langdon’s senior, a father figure to him ever since their first meeting at Princeton University. As a sophomore, Langdon had been required to attend an evening guest lecture by the well-known young historian and philanthropist. Solomon had spoken with a contagious passion, presenting a dazzling vision of semiotics and archetypal history that had sparked in Langdon what would later become his lifelong passion for symbols. It was not Peter Solomon’s brilliance, however, but the humility in his gentle gray eyes that had given Langdon the courage to write him a thank-you letter. The young sophomore had never dreamed that Peter Solomon, one of America’s wealthiest and most intriguing young intellectuals, would ever write back. But Solomon did. And it had been the beginning of a truly gratifying friendship. A prominent academic whose quiet manner belied his powerful heritage, Peter Solomon came from the ultrawealthy Solomon family, whose names appeared on buildings and universities all over the nation. Like the Rothschilds in Europe, the surname Solomon had always carried the mystique of American royalty and success. Peter had inherited the mantle at a young age after the death of his father, and now, at fifty-eight, he had held numerous positions of power in his life. He currently served as the head of the Smithsonian Institution. Langdon occasionally ribbed Peter that the lone tarnish on his sterling pedigree was his diploma from a second-rate university–Yale. Now, as Langdon entered his study, he was surprised to see that he had received a fax from Peter as well. Peter Solomon OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY THE SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Good morning, Robert, I need to speak with you at once. Please call me this morning as soon as you can at 202-329- 5746. Peter Langdon immediately dialed the number, sitting down at his hand-carved oak desk to wait as the call went through. â€Å"Office of Peter Solomon,† the familiar voice of the assistant answered. â€Å"This is Anthony. May I help you?† â€Å"Hello, this is Robert Langdon. You left me a message earlier–â€Å" â€Å"Yes, Professor Langdon!† The young man sounded relieved. â€Å"Thank you for calling back so quickly. Mr. Solomon is eager to speak to you. Let me tell him you’re on the line. May I put you on hold?† â€Å"Of course.† As Langdon waited for Solomon to get on the line, he gazed down at Peter’s name atop the Smithsonian letterhead and had to smile. Not many slackers in the Solomon clan. Peter’s ancestral tree burgeoned with the names of wealthy business magnates, influential politicians, and a number of distinguished scientists, some even fellows of London’s Royal Society. Solomon’s only living family member, his younger sister, Katherine, had apparently inherited the science gene, because she was now a leading figure in a new cutting-edge discipline called Noetic Science. All Greek to me, Langdon thought, amused to recall Katherine’s unsuccessful attempt to explain Noetic Science to him at a party at her brother’s home last year. Langdon had listened carefully and then replied, â€Å"Sounds more like magic than science.† Katherine winked playfully. â€Å"They’re closer than you think, Robert.† Now Solomon’s assistant returned to the phone. â€Å"I’m sorry, Mr. Solomon is trying to get off a conference call. Things are a little chaotic here this morning.† â€Å"That’s not a problem. I can easily call back.† â€Å"Actually, he asked me to fill you in on his reason for contacting you, if you don’t mind?† â€Å"Of course not.† The assistant inhaled deeply. â€Å"As you probably know, Professor, every year here in Washington, the board of the Smithsonian hosts a private gala to thank our most generous supporters. Many of the country’s cultural elite attend.† Langdon knew his own bank account had too few zeros to qualify him as culturally elite, but he wondered if maybe Solomon was going to invite him to attend nonetheless. â€Å"This year, as is customary,† the assistant continued, â€Å"the dinner will be preceded by a keynote address. We’ve been lucky enough to secure the National Statuary Hall for that speech.† The best room in all of D.C., Langdon thought, recalling a political lecture he had once attended in the dramatic semicircular hall. It was hard to forget five hundred folding chairs splayed in a perfect arc, surrounded by thirty-eight life-size statues, in a room that had once served as the nation’s original House of Representatives chamber. â€Å"The problem is this,† the man said. â€Å"Our speaker has fallen ill and has just informed us she will be unable to give the address.† He paused awkwardly. â€Å"This means we are desperate for a replacement speaker. And Mr. Solomon is hoping you would consider filling in.† Langdon did a double take. â€Å"Me?† This was not at all what he had expected. â€Å"I’m sure Peter could find a far better substitute.† â€Å"You’re Mr. Solomon’s first choice, Professor, and you’re being much too modest. The institution’s guests would be thrilled to hear from you, and Mr. Solomon thought you could give the same lecture you gave on Bookspan TV a few years back? That way, you wouldn’t have to prepare a thing. He said your talk involved symbolism in the architecture of our nation’s capital–it sounds absolutely perfect for the venue.† Langdon was not so sure. â€Å"If I recall, that lecture had more to do with the Masonic history of the building than–â€Å" â€Å"Exactly! As you know, Mr. Solomon is a Mason, as are many of his professional friends who will be in attendance. I’m sure they would love to hear you speak on the topic.† I admit it would be easy. Langdon had kept the lecture notes from every talk he’d ever given. â€Å"I suppose I could consider it. What date is the event?† The assistant cleared his throat, sounding suddenly uncomfortable. â€Å"Well, actually, sir, it’s tonight.† Langdon laughed out loud. â€Å"Tonight?!† â€Å"That’s why it’s so hectic here this morning. The Smithsonian is in a deeply embarrassing predicament . . .† The assistant spoke more hurriedly now. â€Å"Mr. Solomon is ready to send a private jet to Boston for you. The flight is only an hour, and you would be back home before midnight. You’re familiar with the private air terminal at Boston’s Logan Airport?† â€Å"I am,† Langdon admitted reluctantly. No wonder Peter always gets his way. â€Å"Wonderful! Would you be willing to meet the jet there at say . . . five o’clock?† â€Å"You haven’t left me much choice, have you?† Langdon chuckled. â€Å"I just want to make Mr. Solomon happy, sir.† Peter has that effect on people. Langdon considered it a long moment, seeing no way out. â€Å"All right. Tell him I can do it.† â€Å"Outstanding!† the assistant exclaimed, sounding deeply relieved. He gave Langdon the jet’s tail number and various other information. When Langdon finally hung up, he wondered if Peter Solomon had ever been told no. Returning to his coffee preparation, Langdon scooped some additional beans into the grinder. A little extra caffeine this morning, he thought. It’s going to be a long day. How to cite The Lost Symbol Chapter 1-3, Essay examples

The Historical Progression of African Americans During 1865

Introduction This paper is aimed at showing the understanding and application of American history by bringing out historical concepts that played a major role in shaping America as it is known to day from 1865-2011. This paper will look into some of the social, cultural, economic, literary, political, and religious challenges that brought about the changes that have occurred in American History over this period.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Historical Progression of African Americans During 1865-2011 specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More The historical progression of African Americans during this period in America is a keystone historical event that greatly impacted the United States, in all areas socially, culturally, economically, literary, politically, and religiously. The proclamation for emancipation in 1865 by Abraham Lincoln was a stepping stone for African Americans to rise up and fight for the ir rights. This also set in motion different aspects that shaped America during the period between 1865- 1976. This paper will look at American history through the years and the study of its history has been grouped into five areas: 1865-1876 (post-civil war), widely known as the reconstruction era (implemented by congress with an aim at restructuring the southern states by outlining the means by which whites and blacks could live together in a non-slave society; 1877-1920 (post-reconstruction era), characterized by vengeance against African Americans by the southerners as a result of the reconstruction era; 1921-1945 (Harlem Renaissance period), emergence of strong civil rights; 1946-1976 (post world); and finally 1976-Present. This paper is aimed at describing the historical progression of African Americans since the end of the civil war up to the present period. African Americans have experienced a lot of changes in terms of political, economic, religious, literary, and socially, all this influenced by a number of prominent figures. Historical Progression of African Americans Unit One (1865-1876) In unit one, the life for African Americans was one characterized by oppression inequity and ironically, with triumph. This covers the years 1865-1876 and is filled by a huge sadness over the distant memories of homelands left behind. Life was not that easy for them, as they were slaves and theirs was not the classic history of earlier immigrants who embraced and got integrated into the American lifestyle. Their sweat, tears and blood is what built America. These actions are a contradiction from the values and principles (equality and freedom) that the founded the United States of America (Weiner Knopf, 2004).Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Samuel Adams in his book, A Dream Deferred: African Americans from 1865, clearly brought out the situation at that time and what Americans went through. Sundquist (1995) quotes, â€Å"If men, through fear, fraud, or mistake, should in terms renounce or give up any natural right, the eternal law of reason and the grand end of society would absolutely vacate such renunciation. The right to freedom being the gift of Almighty God, it is not in the power of man to alienate this gift and voluntarily become a slave.† One Social/cultural issue Americans faced was slavery, which was first witnessed at around 1619 when the first African slaves were taken to Jamestown, Virginia to work as servants. This was a major cultural and social issue due to the fact that, Africans were made to give the impression they were lesser than the whites, for slavery to work and was carried out through religious racism. When slavery hit the south, it was characterized by, Africans working on huge plantations, planting and harvesting crops; they also did other chores and were not paid for any of these jobs (Davidson et al. , 2008). Punishments which were usually harsh, such as branding, whipping, mutilation, chaining and sometimes the harshest punishment of all cold blooded murder were common in the plantations (Braude, 2002). In response to these issues they chose to run away from the plantations and oppressions by their masters. Few revolts were witnessed but runaways were frequent, and were harshly punished if a slave happened to be caught. The end of the civil war which had the northern states against slavery fighting the southern states which were white supremacists, in 1865 was meant to bring a revolution in the treatment of African Americans. This was the beginning of the reconstruction era and urgency by African Americans to engage in politics so as to have their own voice and fight for their rights. This is because, despite the end of slavery, former salves within the southern states saw it as a ‘false dawn’. The freedom bureau was created at the end of the civil war, to supply m eans of support to former slaves in terms of food, shelter and medical aid (Sundquist, 1995). The outcome of this emancipation and enlightenment among African Americans created vigor to be their own voice, and have their own representatives in the political arena to articulate their own issues (Davidson et al., 2008). This period was very instrumental in the development of African American civil rights movements across the United States. Blacks were now able to vote, especially with help from congress which passed the First Enforcement Act (meant to protect black voters); Second Enforcement act (specifically for supervising elections); and the Third Enforcement Act that had powers to suspend habeas corpus and arrest suspected KKK members. This was due to the rise in white supremacist violence against African Americans.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The Historical Progression of African Americans During 1865-2011 specifically for you for on ly $16.05 $11/page Learn More Unit Two (1877-1920) In unit two, life for African Americans saw a transformation from slavery to emancipation during this period, famously declared by Abraham Lincoln. African American life was beset with violence and intimidation from white supremacists. They were constantly harassed, troubled and attacked by white supremacists widely known as the Ku Klux Klan. African Americans lives were characterized by lack of economic dependence, and real freedoms (Black, 2005). Constant massacres, mob violence which led to thousands of deaths were a constant feature of this period. One political issue they faced was reform for the support of white supremacy. Voter registration and turnout decreased rapidly due to the constant violence against African Americans. In response to that issue they chose to protest against segregation, discrimination, and disfranchisement. This led to formation of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored P eople (NAACP) which came together, uniting for a common purpose in a common cause, and call on people to do this for need of equality in terms of rights and privileges of blacks as those accorded to white Americans (Davidson et al., 2008). In response to the issues above, African Americans chose to achieve high literacy levels, build their own churches as religion had been used by white supremacists as a tool of racism on them. Ironically they opted to continue working in white owned land despite being emancipated. On the political front they chose to carry out protests against discrimination and segregation. This period witnessed the creation of the Niagara movement and other secret civil rights organizations which â€Å" called for an end to racial discrimination, full civil liberties for African Americans and recognition of human brotherhood† (Black, 2005). The outcome of this was establishments of black churches with free slaves heading them, the decision to acquire the a bility to read and write to a competent level by blacks resulted to them being trained as teachers, white land owners made sharecropping agreements between themselves and the blacks (Brinkley 1995).Advertising Looking for research paper on history? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Unit Three (1921-1945) In unit three, the life of African Americans had begun to improve with the increasingly growth in strength of the civil rights movement. The twenties were fondly referred to as the Harlem Renaissance period which came about as an outcome of the great migration. African Americans moved from the south to the north (was opposed to slavery and wanted slavery to be abolished). The north was not as oppressive as the south, consequently, their numbers in the northern states swelled immensely due to the opportunity they had to enjoy and exercise their rights (Harley 1996). One economic and social/cultural issue they faced was the economic crisis of the late twenties to thirties. This greatly drew back on the gains and progress done by African Americans. They constantly struggled for economic advancement and social gains (Weiner Knopf, 2004). In response to this issue, remarkable artists for example: Claude McKay, and Langston Hughes among others chose to support the Harlem Renaissance and the civil rights movement as a whole (Alexander 2010). The outcome of this was an American community that comprised of both African Americans and white Americans. The African Americans were able to realize achievements as evidenced by their contribution to the US army in World War 2. Another outcome observed during this period is the formation and spread of the Harlem Renaissance, a cultural movement, known as the Harlem Renaissance, spread countrywide (Lincoln Mamiya 1990). Unit Four (1946-1976) In unit four, this period was referred to as post world war 2 and life for African Americans was characterized more vigor in civil rights and calls for equality, this was due to the exposure and stories that soldiers had come back with from their sojourns around the world during the war (Weiner. Knopf 2004). One Social/literary issue they faced was the portrayal of the African American culture in a biased way. This saw them, become very significant in the American te levision and film industry and also took up writing on freelance basis and freelance photographers (Davidson et al. 2008). In response to this issue, they chose to undertake boycotts, marches and sit-ins to pass their political messages and calls for equality. This saw the emergence of Martin Luther King Jr. and other prominent leaders such as Malcolm X, leading the civil rights movement which had reached its highest point and could no longer be ignored (Sundquist, 1995). They organized the movements which led to the white majority being forced to give in to their demands and make available opportunities for African Americans to exercise their rights. The outcome of this was an African American community that was substantially socioeconomically and politically sound. They were able to realize the equality they were calling for. School segregation was also eliminated and a ban on discrimination against anyone on basis of race was put in place. This period also saw a decrease in viole nce against African Americans. All this came at a cost, with the African American community and the civil rights movement suffering a huge blow the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. in 1968. Apart from this they became very talented individuals in the television and film industry. Unit Five (1976-Present) In unit five, life for African Americans was characterized by an increasingly huge percentage of African Americans in political positions, for example Douglas Wilder was elected the first African America governor in 1989; 1992 witnessed the first election of an African American woman to the US senate- Carol Moseley-Braun (Franklin, 2001). African American way of life was also scoffed at during this period due to an increase in teenage pregnancies. The change in perception of African Americans was due to a number of influential persons such as Martin Luther King Jr., the colorful Jesse Jackson who was frequently on news programs. Oprah Winfrey was the one black person who not only gained entry into millions of living rooms but also was welcomed warmly One political/ socioeconomic issue they faced and are still facing is a predominant white majority in positions of power. African Americans still make up a huge percentage of poor people in the United States. â€Å"Moreover, even modern public schools return to the epoch of segregation since often the share of non-white students in some public schools exceeds 99%† (Braude, 2002). In response to that African American took up being railroad porters and the automotive industry. They also took up politics with zeal with an aim of acquiring local, state, and federal legislation through lobbying groups and organizations such as National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP). The outcome of this was a better life than what was witnessed some decades ago for the African Americans. This was as a result of the determination of the civil rights movement. African Americans opted to seek for s ocioeconomic justice as a relief from narrow-mindedness of white supremacists by way of endeavoring to discover opportunities in the developing industrial segment of America. For years, Black Americans gained recognition for their ability in baseball, basketball, football and tennis. But it was Oprah who changed the viewpoints of millions of Americans who identified with the compassionate woman. She not only became a household name, but a woman whom viewers held in high esteem regardless of their race. Her political agenda transcended party lines. She wanted to make a difference for black people, and to make this world a better place. She is respected for her ethical and moral approach to the issues of today. â€Å"Her style reached out and connected with what every woman was thinking because she asked the questions and said the things that they understood† (Davidson et al., 2008). Conclusion American history relies heavily on African American history and their historical pro gression over the years as far back as 1619 when the first blacks were brought to America as slaves. Despite African Americans being slaves, they have come a long way, as they are now citizens of the United States of America enjoying the rights and privileges accorded to every American citizen; and are no longer slaves. The black race has proved to be a very influential, powerful and significant in shaping of the US in all areas of the society; politically, culturally, religiously, socially, literary, and economically, to what it is today. African Americans can now be found holding major political offices, for example President Barrack Obama (first black president), vote in any election, enjoy all rights available to any citizen, and can also be found running huge conglomerates. This did not just come to being, but had to be fought for. Many of them shed their blood so that they could be emancipated fully and enjoy equal rights as their fellow white Americans. Over the years, Africa n Americans have been constantly and unjustly treated, discriminated upon, segregated and murdered, just because of their skin color. They were treated as property belonging to someone; therefore the achievement of civil freedom is a very vital concept in American history to learn from. It is difficult to actually comprehend the life and oppressions African Americans had to undergo for so many years and living in constant fear of what may happen to them. The emergence of civil rights movements enabled African Americans to fight for equality, get education, call for an end to segregation in schools and be able to participate in elections. Despite there being various discriminatory laws that heaped restrictions on the lives of African Americans during this period, freed black slaves who were now American citizens, especially on the northern states, became more active in politics and matters of American society, leading to an influx of African Americans in the northern states as a resu lt of migration from the southern states. African American men enrolled as soldiers for the United States army and took part in the war of 1812 and the American Revolution. The right to vote, owning property, land, homes, businesses and paying of taxes, which was all a dream now became a reality for African Americans. References Alexander, L. (2010). Encyclopedia of African American History, Volume 1 American ethnic experience. New York, NY: ABC-CLIO. Black, T. (2005). Bridges of Memory; Chicago’s First Wave of Black Migration: An Oral History. New York, NY: Northwestern University Press. Braude, B. (2002). The Abrahamic Attitudes toward Racism and Slavery. Is Religion Moral?. Annals: History, Social Science, 22. Brinkley, A. (1995). American history: a survey. Pineland: McGraw-Hill. Davidson, J. et al. (2008). Nation of nations: a narrative history of the American Republic. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Franklin, F. (2001). From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Africa n Americans. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill Education. Harley, S. (1996). The timetables of African-American history: a chronology of the most important people and events in African-American history. New York, NY: Simon Schuster. Lincoln, C. Mamiya , L. (1990). The Black church in the African-American experience. Durham, NC: Duke University Press. Sundquist, E. (1995). Empire and slavery in American literature, 1820-1865. New York, NY: Univ. Press of Mississippi. Weiner, M. Knopf, A. (2004). Black Trials: Citizenship from the Beginnings of Slavery to the End of Caste. New York, NY: Random House. This research paper on The Historical Progression of African Americans During 1865-2011 was written and submitted by user Antonio Z. to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.